Lesson 13.3.1

等离子体波

Plasma Waves

UG2→EXT5 个知识点10 幅图示4 张表格

Learning objectives / 学习目标

学完本课后,你应能:

  • 从 cold-electron displacement 推导 \(\omega_{pe}\),并加入 pressure 得到 Bohm–Gross real-frequency correction;
  • 解释 ion-acoustic wave 的 electron pressure/ion inertia 分工,计算 \(c_s\) 并检查 Landau-damping 条件;
  • 推导 unmagnetized transverse EM dispersion \(\omega^2=\omega_{pe}^2+c^2k^2\),区分 phase/group velocity 与 energy transport;
  • 从 ideal MHD linearization 识别 shear-Alfvén、fast/slow magnetosonic polarizations 与 angle dependence;
  • 在 dispersion diagram 中区分 cutoff、resonance、turning point、evanescence 与 absorption,并说明 cold-plasma model 的边界;
  • 建立从 frequency ordering、\(\mathbf k\)–\(\mathbf B_0\) geometry、polarization 与 temperature 到 wave branch 的可执行判别流程。

Prerequisites / 先修知识

  • Kinetic Theory and Vlasov Equation:linear response、Landau resonance 与 Fourier convention;
  • Plasma Fluid and MHD Models:induction、magnetic tension、\(v_A\);
  • simple harmonic motion、sound waves、Maxwell wave equation;
  • complex refractive index、phase/group velocity 与 vector decomposition。

Scope and conventions / 范围与约定

  • perturbations 均小,\(X_1\propto\exp[i(\mathbf k\cdot\mathbf r-\omega t)]\);real \(k\) 与 complex \(\omega\) 用于 temporal analysis。
  • \(\omega_{ps}=\sqrt{n_{s0}q_s^2/(\epsilon_0m_s)}\);\(\Omega_s=q_sB_0/m_s\) 保留 signed charge,\(\omega_{cs}=\lvert\Omega_s\rvert\)。
  • electron thermal spread \(v_{Te}=\sqrt{k_BT_e/m_e}\);Bohm–Gross relation 使用此 convention。
  • cold-plasma EM sections 忽略 thermal pressure 与 collisions;MHD sections 要求 \(\omega\ll\omega_{ci}\)、\(k\rho_i\ll1\)。
  • ion-acoustic fluid speed 写 \(c_s^2=(\gamma_ek_BT_e+\gamma_ik_BT_i)/m_i\);具体 \(\gamma_s\) 由 dimensionality/heat-flow closure 决定。

Notation and modeling contract / 符号与建模契约

Symbol Meaning SI / convention
\(\omega,k\) angular frequency, wavenumber \(\mathrm{s^{-1}}\), \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\)
\(v_\phi=\omega_r/k\) phase speed for temporal analysis with real \(k\) \(\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
\(v_g=d\omega/dk\) group speed \(\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
\(\omega_{pe}\) electron plasma angular frequency \(\mathrm{s^{-1}}\)
\(c_s\) ion-acoustic speed \(\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
\(v_A=B_0/\sqrt{\mu_0\rho_0}\) Alfvén speed \(\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
\(N=ck/\omega\) refractive index dimensionless
\(\theta\) angle between \(\mathbf k\) and \(\mathbf B_0\) rad or degree

1. Electron plasma oscillations / 电子等离子体振荡

Knowledge ID: P13-U03-L01-K01

1.1 Cold displacement derivation

想象 electrons 相对 immobile ions 整体位移 \(\xi\)。slab bulk 内产生 restoring electric field;linearized electron momentum 与 continuity/Poisson 可合成

\[m_e\frac{d^2\xi}{dt^2}=-eE, \qquad E=\frac{n_0e}{\epsilon_0}\xi.\]

所以

\[\frac{d^2\xi}{dt^2}+\omega_{pe}^2\xi=0, \qquad \boxed{\omega_{pe}=\sqrt{\frac{n_0e^2}{\epsilon_0m_e}}}.\]

ions 提供 inertia-free neutralizing background,electron mass 提供 inertia,charge separation 提供 electric restoring force。cold limit 的 \(\omega\) 与 \(k\) 无关,因此 group velocity 为零:它是 local collective oscillation,不是 ballistic electron crossing frequency。

Plasma Waves — 1.1 Cold displacement derivation(图 1)
图 11.1 Cold displacement derivation

图 1 中 dots 表示 density markers。electron slab 向 \(+x\) 位移后,左侧为正、右侧为负,因此 \(\mathbf E\) 从左向右;electron restoring force \(-e\mathbf E\) 向左,与位移相反。

1.2 Warm correction

若保留 electron pressure,warm-fluid real frequency 近似

\[\omega^2\simeq\omega_{pe}^2+3k^2v_{Te}^2\]

(one-dimensional adiabatic response)。这是 Bohm–Gross relation;kinetic theory 还给 Landau damping。它要求 \(k\lambda_D\) 足够小且 phase speed 远离 distribution core,不能把 real-frequency correction 当作完整 kinetic dispersion。

Plasma Waves — 1.2 Warm correction(图 2)
图 21.2 Warm correction

图 2 比较 cold zero-group-speed 与 warm dispersive branch;tangent slope 是 local group speed。

2. Ion-acoustic waves / 离子声波

Knowledge ID: P13-U03-L01-K02

在 low-frequency quasineutral disturbance 中,mobile electrons 快速沿 electric field 建立 near-Boltzmann density response,electron pressure 提供 restoring force;heavy ions 提供 inertia。fluid long-wavelength dispersion:

\[\omega^2=k^2c_s^2, \qquad c_s^2=\frac{\gamma_ek_BT_e+\gamma_ik_BT_i}{m_i}.\]

保留 finite Debye length 的 simplest kinetic/fluid interpolation(cold ions、Boltzmann electrons):

\[\omega^2=\frac{k^2(k_BT_e/m_i)}{1+k^2\lambda_D^2}.\]

kinetic survival condition 很关键:若 \(T_e\) 不显著大于 \(T_i\),\(v_\phi\) 落入 ion distribution core,ion Landau damping 可很强;“有 fluid root”不保证有 long-lived observable normal mode。

Plasma Waves — 2. Ion-acoustic waves / 离子声波(图 3)
图 32. Ion-acoustic waves / 离子声波

图 3 中 red markers 表示 ion density bunching,blue curve 是 density envelope 而非 particle trajectory。

Plasma Waves — 2. Ion-acoustic waves / 离子声波(图 4)
图 42. Ion-acoustic waves / 离子声波

图 4 展示 weak-damping velocity ordering;curves 各自 normalized schematically,不比较 absolute areas。

3. Electromagnetic waves in plasma / 等离子体中的电磁波

Knowledge ID: P13-U03-L01-K03

对 unmagnetized cold electrons,transverse wave 的 oscillatory current 修改 Maxwell wave equation:

\[\boxed{\omega^2=\omega_{pe}^2+c^2k^2}.\]

因此

\[N^2=\frac{c^2k^2}{\omega^2}=1-\frac{\omega_{pe}^2}{\omega^2}.\]

若 \(\omega>\omega_{pe}\),\(k\) real,wave propagates;若 \(\omega<\omega_{pe}\),\(k=i\kappa\),field evanescent。phase 与 group velocities:

\[v_\phi=\frac{\omega}{k}>c, \qquad v_g=\frac{d\omega}{dk}=\frac{c^2k}{\omega}<c, \qquad v_\phi v_g=c^2.\]

\(v_\phi>c\) 不传递 information;wave packet/envelope 与 energy 以 group velocity(在 lossless homogeneous model 中)传播。

Plasma Waves — 3. Electromagnetic waves in plasma / 等离子体中的电磁波(图 5)
图 53. Electromagnetic waves in plasma / 等离子体中的电磁波

图 5 的 vertical intercept 是 cutoff;plasma branch approaches vacuum line at high \(k\)。

Plasma Waves — 3. Electromagnetic waves in plasma / 等离子体中的电磁波(图 6)
图 63. Electromagnetic waves in plasma / 等离子体中的电磁波

图 6 对比 oscillatory 与 evanescent field;right-side curve 是 amplitude envelope,不是 energy flow arrow。

4. Alfvén and magnetosonic waves / 阿尔芬与磁声波

Knowledge ID: P13-U03-L01-K04

4.1 Shear-Alfvén wave

ideal MHD 中 magnetic tension 恢复 transverse displacement,mass density 提供 inertia:

\[\omega^2=k_\parallel^2v_A^2, \qquad v_A=\frac{B_0}{\sqrt{\mu_0\rho_0}}.\]

shear mode 的 \(\delta\mathbf V\) 与 \(\delta\mathbf B\) 横向,ideal incompressible limit 中 \(\delta\rho\simeq0\)。它沿 field component 传播;\(k_\parallel=0\) 时 ideal shear-Alfvén frequency 为零。

Plasma Waves — 4.1 Shear-Alfvén wave(图 7)
图 74.1 Shear-Alfvén wave

图 7 是 field-line displacement;red arrow transverse、green arrow parallel,二者不可混同。

4.2 Fast and slow magnetosonic waves

compressibility 加入 gas pressure,phase speeds 对 angle \(\theta\) 满足

\[v_{f,s}^2=\frac12\left[v_A^2+c_s^2 \pm\sqrt{(v_A^2+c_s^2)^2-4v_A^2c_s^2\cos^2\theta}\right].\]

fast mode 通常使 magnetic/thermal pressure in phase,能跨 field 传播;slow mode 受两种 restoring effects 与 geometry 共同限制,沿 field 更明显。parallel limit 的 branch labels 可能交换 ordering,故应看 polarization 与 limiting speed,而不只看“快/慢”字面。

Plasma Waves — 4.2 Fast and slow magnetosonic waves(图 8)
图 84.2 Fast and slow magnetosonic waves

图 8 是 branch topology schematic,未按特定 \(v_A/c_s\) 比例绘制。在此 \(v_A>c_s\) 示意中,parallel limit 的 fast magnetosonic 与 shear-Alfv'en phase speeds 同为 \(v_A\),在左端简并但 polarization 不同;perpendicular propagation 的 shear-Alfv'en 与 slow branches 都退化到 zero frequency,在右端重合但 eigenvectors 仍不同。

5. Cutoffs, resonances, and dispersion / 截止、共振与色散

Knowledge ID: P13-U03-L01-K05

dispersion relation \(D(\omega,\mathbf k)=0\) 同时编码 polarization、allowed propagation 与 characteristic speeds。关键点:

  • cutoff: 对给定 real \(\omega\),\(N^2\to0\)、\(k\to0\);通常连接 propagating 与 evanescent regions,inhomogeneous medium 中产生 reflection/turning-point physics;
  • resonance: cold model 中 \(N^2\to\infty\)、\(k\to\infty\) 或 dielectric element singular;finite temperature、collisions 与 kinetic effects 决定 absorption/mode conversion,不能仅凭 infinity 断言实际 field diverges;
  • cyclotron/plasma resonances: medium response denominator 接近 natural species frequencies;polarization 决定 coupling;
  • dispersion: \(v_\phi\) 随 \(k\) 变化,wave packet 各 Fourier components dephase;\(v_g=\partial\omega/\partial k\) 是 local slope,near resonance/loss 情况需用 energy velocity 与 complex \(k,\omega\) 更谨慎。

magnetized cold plasma 的 dielectric tensor 给出 R/L/O/X 等 branches;本课不要求背诵整个 Appleton–Hartree formula,而要求按 \(\omega/\omega_{cs}\)、propagation angle 与 polarization 读取 branch。

Plasma Waves — 5. Cutoffs, resonances, and dispersion / 截止、共振与色散(图 9)
图 95. Cutoffs, resonances, and dispersion / 截止、共振与色散

图 9 区分 \(N^2=0\) cutoff 与 pole-like resonance;实际 inhomogeneous solution regularizes singular idealization。

Plasma Waves — 5. Cutoffs, resonances, and dispersion / 截止、共振与色散(图 10)
图 105. Cutoffs, resonances, and dispersion / 截止、共振与色散

图 10 是决策流程:任何 branch name 都须同时通过 frequency、geometry、polarization 与 model-boundary audit。

Worked examples / 完整例题

Worked Example 1 — Electron plasma frequency

已知: uniform electron density \(n_e=1.00\times10^{18}\ \mathrm{m^{-3}}\);ions fixed。
研究对象: small cold longitudinal displacement。
参考系: plasma equilibrium frame;只求 magnitude。
模型: cold unmagnetized electron oscillation。

\[\omega_{pe}=\sqrt{\frac{n_ee^2}{\epsilon_0m_e}} =5.64\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}.\]

\[f_{pe}=\frac{\omega_{pe}}{2\pi}=8.98\times10^9\ \mathrm{Hz}, \qquad \tau=\frac{1}{f_{pe}}=1.11\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm s.\]

检查: \(\omega_{pe}\propto\sqrt n\);density 增 4 倍,frequency 增 2 倍。\(\omega\) 是 rad/s,不能直接称 56.4 GHz。

Worked Example 2 — Ion-acoustic frequency 与 kinetic ordering

已知: hydrogen plasma,\(T_e=10.0\ \mathrm{eV}\),\(T_i=1.00\ \mathrm{eV}\),\(\gamma_e=1\)、\(\gamma_i=3\),\(k=20.0\ \mathrm{m^{-1}}\),且 \(k\lambda_D\ll1\)。
方向: \(k>0\);wave 沿 \(+x\)。
模型: fluid real frequency,随后作 kinetic boundary check。

\[c_s=\sqrt{\frac{e(T_e+3T_i)}{m_p}} =3.53\times10^4\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}.\]

\[\omega=kc_s=7.06\times10^5\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}, \qquad f=1.12\times10^5\ \mathrm{Hz}.\]

ion thermal spread \(v_{Ti}=\sqrt{eT_i/m_p}=9.79\times10^3\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\),故 \(v_\phi/v_{Ti}=3.60\);\(T_e/T_i=10\),damping 可较弱但不为零。
检查: 若 \(T_e\sim T_i\),fluid \(c_s\) 仍可算,observable wave 却可能被 strong ion Landau damping 抑制。

Worked Example 3 — EM cutoff 上方的 phase/group speed

已知: \(n_e=1.00\times10^{17}\ \mathrm{m^{-3}}\),incident frequency \(f=5.00\ \mathrm{GHz}\);unmagnetized cold plasma。
系统边界: homogeneous bulk,忽略 reflection interface details 与 collisions。
模型: transverse EM dispersion。

\(f_{pe}=2.84\ \mathrm{GHz}<f\),可传播。于是

\[\frac{v_g}{c}=\sqrt{1-\frac{f_{pe}^2}{f^2}}=0.823,\]

\[v_g=2.47\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}, \qquad v_\phi=\frac{c^2}{v_g}=3.64\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}.\]

\[k=\frac{2\pi f}{c}\sqrt{1-\frac{f_{pe}^2}{f^2}} =86.2\ \mathrm{m^{-1}}.\]

检查: \(v_\phi>c\) 不违反 relativity;packet/group speed \(<c\)。若 \(f\) 降到 \(f_{pe}\),\(k,v_g\to0\)。

Worked Example 4 — MHD branches at oblique angle

已知: \(v_A=1.00\times10^6\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\),\(c_s=2.00\times10^5\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\),\(\theta=60.0^\circ\)。
研究对象: uniform ideal-MHD plasma;linear waves。
坐标: \(\mathbf B_0\parallel\hat z\),\(\mathbf k\) 在 \(x\)–\(z\) plane。

shear-Alfvén phase speed along \(\mathbf k\):

\[v_{\phi A}=v_A\cos\theta=5.00\times10^5\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}.\]

magnetosonic formula 给

\[v_f=1.02\times10^6\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}, \qquad v_s=9.85\times10^4\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}.\]

检查: product relation \(v_f^2v_s^2=v_A^2c_s^2\cos^2\theta\) 成立至 rounding;fast 接近 larger speed \(v_A\),slow 被 obliquity 压低。三个 modes 的 polarization 不同,即使 frequencies 接近也不能只按 speed 命名。

Lesson synthesis / 全课整合

wave selection workflow:声明 equilibrium 与 Fourier convention → 比较 \(\omega\) 和 \(\omega_{pe},\omega_{ce},\omega_{ci}\) → 确认 electrostatic/transverse/MHD polarization → 声明 mobile species 与 restoring force → 选择 cold/fluid/kinetic closure → 解 \(D(\omega,k)=0\) → 在 dispersion curve 上读 phase/group speed → 检查 cutoff/resonance、damping 与 model ordering。

Formula-and-decision table / 公式与决策表

Need Relation Use only when Main caution
cold electron oscillation \(\omega=\omega_{pe}\) immobile ions, no pressure local oscillation, zero cold \(v_g\)
Bohm–Gross real part \(\omega^2\simeq\omega_{pe}^2+3k^2v_{Te}^2\) \(k\lambda_D\) small, weak damping not a full kinetic result
ion-acoustic speed \(c_s^2=(\gamma_e k_BT_e+\gamma_i k_BT_i)/m_i\) chosen closures kinetic damping may erase mode
unmagnetized EM \(\omega^2=\omega_{pe}^2+c^2k^2\) cold, collisionless, transverse below cutoff is evanescent
shear Alfvén \(\omega=k_\parallel v_A\) ideal MHD requires low frequency and long scale
magnetosonic \(v_{f,s}^2\) angle formula compressible ideal MHD labels depend on limits/polarization
cutoff/resonance \(N^2=0\) / \(N^2\to\infty\) local cold dispersion inhomogeneity/kinetics regularize

Model boundaries / 模型边界

  • Cold electron oscillation misses pressure, Landau damping and finite Debye-length behavior。
  • Ion-acoustic fluid roots can be strongly damped unless velocity-space ordering is favorable。
  • In magnetized plasma, dielectric tensor splits R/L/O/X and introduces cyclotron/hybrid resonances;unmagnetized scalar formula is insufficient。
  • Near cutoff/resonance, WKB/local plane-wave approximation fails;reflection, mode conversion and absorption require inhomogeneous treatment。
  • MHD branches require \(k\rho_i\ll1\) and \(\omega\ll\omega_{ci}\);kinetic Alfvén/ion-cyclotron/whistler branches lie beyond ideal MHD。
  • Group velocity equals energy/information speed only in appropriate lossless weakly dispersive settings;complex modes need fuller energy-flux analysis。

Misconception clinic / 易错概念诊所

Misconception Correction
plasma frequency is electron collision frequency it is a collective restoring oscillation and exists collisionlessly
every fluid dispersion root is observable kinetic damping/growth and boundaries decide survival
phase velocity above \(c\) sends information faster than light modulation/energy follows causal group/front behavior
below EM cutoff the field is exactly zero it is evanescent with finite penetration, and interfaces matter
Alfvén wave is ordinary sound along field restoring force is magnetic tension and polarization is transverse
fast/slow always equal \(v_A\) and \(c_s\) oblique propagation mixes restoring forces
resonance means mathematical field infinity ideal model breaks; damping, finite temperature and nonlinearity regularize response

Practice and retrieval / 练习与检索

  1. [K01] \(n_e\) 增为 9 倍时 \(\omega_{pe}\) 如何变化?
Answer 1

\(\omega_{pe}\propto\sqrt{n_e}\),所以变为 3 倍。

  1. [K01] cold Langmuir branch 为什么 \(v_g=0\)?
Answer 2

\(\omega=\omega_{pe}\) 与 \(k\) 无关,故 \(d\omega/dk=0\);加入 pressure 后 branch 才有 finite slope。

  1. [K02] ion-acoustic wave 中谁提供主要 restoring force、谁提供 inertia?
Answer 3

常见 \(T_e\gg T_i\) ordering 下 electron pressure 提供 restoring force,ions 的 mass 提供 inertia。

  1. [K02] \(T_e\approx T_i\) 时为何 fluid solution 仍可能看不到 clear wave?
Answer 4

phase speed 落入 ion distribution core,ion Landau damping 强,mode 在传播少数 wavelengths 前已衰减。

  1. [K03] \(\omega=0.8\omega_{pe}\) 的 cold unmagnetized EM wave 有 real \(k\) 吗?
Answer 5

没有;\(k^2=(\omega^2-\omega_{pe}^2)/c^2<0\),是 evanescent solution。

  1. [K03] 对该 EM branch,为什么 \(v_\phi v_g=c^2\)?
Answer 6

由 \(\omega^2=\omega_{pe}^2+c^2k^2\) 得 \(v_g=c^2k/\omega\),与 \(v_\phi=\omega/k\) 相乘即 \(c^2\)。

  1. [K04] shear-Alfvén wave 若 \(\mathbf k\perp\mathbf B_0\),ideal frequency?
Answer 7

\(k_\parallel=0\),所以 \(\omega=k_\parallel v_A=0\);此 limit 不是传播的 shear-Alfvén wave。

  1. [K04] fixed \(B\) 下 mass density 增为 4 倍,\(v_A\)?
Answer 8

\(v_A\propto\rho^{-1/2}\),故减半。

  1. [K05] cutoff 与 resonance 在 \(N^2\) 上怎样区分?
Answer 9

cutoff 通常 \(N^2\to0\)、\(k\to0\);cold resonance 通常 \(N^2\to\infty\) 或 dielectric response 有 pole。

  1. [综合] 一条 measured branch 接近 \(\omega_{ci}\) 且 \(k\rho_i\sim1\),能否继续用 ideal-MHD Alfvén formula 精确解释?
Answer 10

不能;frequency 与 finite-Larmor-radius ordering 同时失效,应采用 two-fluid/cold-plasma 或 kinetic ion-cyclotron/Alfvén model,并检查 polarization 与 damping。

Exit ticket / 迁移检验

任选一条未知 plasma wave,列出仅凭一张 \(\omega(k)\) 图还不能确定的三项信息。

Exit-ticket benchmark

至少需 equilibrium \(B,n,T\) 与 species、\(\mathbf k\) 相对 \(\mathbf B\) 的 angle、electric/magnetic/velocity polarization;还应知道 damping/growth、complex branch 与 boundary/inhomogeneity。

References and source notes / 参考资料与使用说明

以下权威直接来源均在 2026-08-31 实际打开核对;图示均由正文 dispersion relations 原创绘制。

  1. MIT OpenCourseWare 22.611J, Chapter 5 — Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas — cold/warm waves、Alfvén waves、cutoffs and two-stream context。
  2. Richard Fitzpatrick, UT Austin, Waves in Unmagnetized Plasmas — Langmuir and transverse EM dispersion, cutoff and group velocity。
  3. Richard Fitzpatrick, UT Austin, Ion Acoustic Waves — kinetic dispersion、\(T_e/T_i\) damping condition。
  4. Richard Fitzpatrick, UT Austin, Low-Frequency Wave Propagation — Alfvén speed and low-frequency cold-plasma branches。
  5. Richard Fitzpatrick, UT Austin, Cutoff and Resonance — \(N^2=0\) versus dielectric resonances and angle dependence。
  6. Richard Fitzpatrick, UT Austin, Pulse Propagation — phase/group velocity and turning-point behavior。
  7. Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory SULI, Introduction to Waves in Plasma — wave taxonomy、polarization and teaching sequence。
  8. U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, 2023 NRL Plasma Formulary — plasma/gyro frequencies and wave-speed coefficient checks。

Source-to-content map

Source Used for Knowledge ID / Section Model boundary or convention
MIT 22.611J Ch. 5 full branch map and derivations K01–K05 cold/fluid/kinetic distinctions
Fitzpatrick Unmagnetized Waves Langmuir and EM branches K01, K03 cold scalar dielectric
Fitzpatrick Ion Acoustic acoustic dispersion and damping K02 Maxwellian kinetic boundary
Fitzpatrick Low-Frequency Alfvén branches K04 \(v_A\ll c\), low frequency
Fitzpatrick Cutoff/Resonance propagation singular points K05 cold magnetized dielectric
Fitzpatrick Pulse phase/group speed K03, K05 lossless local wave packet
PPPL SULI waves taxonomy and polarization K01–K05 overview; figures independently redrawn
NRL 2023 numerical frequencies Worked 1–3 mixed practical unit conventions converted to SI

复习与拓展

  • Lesson 13.3.2 将令 \(\operatorname{Im}\omega>0\),追踪 beam、gradient、curvature 与 current 如何把 wave branch 变成 instability。
  • Unit 13.4 fusion/space lessons 将应用 Alfvén、magnetosonic、cutoff/resonance 于 heating、diagnostics、solar wind 与 shocks。
  • 可扩展:full cold-plasma dielectric tensor、Appleton–Hartree equation、Bernstein/whistler/kinetic-Alfvén waves。